Chapter 05
AI, BASICS OF PHYSICS
The title "father of physics" is usually attributed to several prominent scientists, depending on the context and the specific area of physics. However, one of the names most commonly associated with this title is Isaac Newton. His laws of motion and his theory of universal gravitation revolutionized our understanding of the physical world and laid the foundations of classical physics.
In addition to Newton, other famous people have made significant contributions to the field of physics such as:
Albert Einstein: With his theory of relativity, Einstein transformed our understanding of space, time, and gravity, and he also contributed greatly to the development of quantum mechanics with his work on the photoelectric effect and other phenomena.
The photoelectric effect is a phenomenon in which electrons are released from a material when it is exposed to light, or more precisely, to electromagnetic radiation. It was discovered by Heinrich Hertz in 1887 and theoretically explained by Albert Einstein in 1905.
When light hits a material, it can transfer its energy to electrons within the material. If the energy of the light photons is sufficient to overcome the binding energy of the electrons in the material, they can be ejected from the atom, thus creating electric current if a circuit is connected. This is what is known as the photoelectric effect, in which electrons are released from a material when it is exposed to light, or more precisely, electromagnetic radiation. It was discovered by Heinrich Hertz in 1887 and theoretically explained by Albert Einstein in 1905.
When light hits a material, it can transfer its energy to electrons within the material. If the energy of the light photons is sufficient to overcome the binding energy of the electrons in the material, they can be ejected from the atom, thus creating electric current if a circuit is connected. This is what is known as the photoelectric effect which is fundamental in many technological devices, such as solar cells, where sunlight is converted into electricity, as well as in imaging technology, such as digital cameras and medical imaging devices. , where it is used to detect and capture images.
Galileo Galilei: pioneer in the application of the scientific method to physics; He made important discoveries in mechanics, astronomy and kinematics.
James Clerk Maxwell: His equations of electromagnetism unified electrical and magnetic phenomena into a coherent theory and provided the basis for the development of the theory of electromagnetic waves, including light.
According to this theory, an electromagnetic wave consists of electric fields and magnetic fields that oscillate perpendicular to each other and in a direction perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. These fields propagate at the speed of light in a vacuum, which is a universal constant.
Light is a type of electromagnetic wave, but it is only part of the electromagnetic spectrum, which includes everything from radio waves, microwaves and infrared radiation (of lower energy and wavelength) to X-rays and gamma rays (of higher energy and shorter wavelength). Visible light is only a small portion of this spectrum, and its wavelength range is between approximately 400 to 700 nanometers which has been confirmed by numerous experiments and is a cornerstone of modern physics as it provides a unified description of electrical and magnetic phenomena, as well as light and other forms of electromagnetic radiation.
Niels Bohr: One of the founders of quantum mechanics and known for his model of the atom, which introduced the concept of quantized energy levels and laid the foundation for the modern understanding of atomic structure.
Werner Heisenberg: formulated the uncertainty principle, which sets fundamental limits on what we can simultaneously know about the position and momentum of a particle, and was a key figure in the development of quantum mechanics.
Physics is fascinating and full of attractive concepts. To understand them, it is useful to perform simple experiments, solve practical problems and read about the subject.
The main fields of study of physics offer a deep understanding of nature and the universe as a whole; Each of them has many branches and specialized areas.
Area of physics and some of the prominent scientists associated with them:
Classical mechanics: studies the movement of macroscopic objects under the influence of forces. It includes concepts such as kinematics (the study of movement in terms of position, velocity and acceleration); dynamics (the causes of movement) and statics (the study
Werner Heisenberg: formulated the uncertainty principle, which sets fundamental limits on what we can simultaneously know about the position and momentum of a particle, and was a key figure in the development of quantum mechanics.
Physics is fascinating and full of attractive concepts. To understand them, it is useful to perform simple experiments, solve practical problems and read about the subject.
The main fields of study of physics offer a deep understanding of nature and the universe as a whole; Each of them has many branches and specialized areas.
Area of physics and some of the prominent scientists associated with them:
Classical mechanics: studies the movement of macroscopic objects under the influence of forces. It includes concepts such as kinematics (the study of movement in terms of position, velocity and acceleration); dynamics (the causes of movement) and statics (the study of objects in balance).
Isaac Newton: his three laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation are fundamental in classical mechanics and provide the basis for understanding the movement of bodies in space.
Theory of relativity:
Albert Einstein: With his theory of special and general relativity, he revolutionized our understanding of space, time and gravity. He established that the speed of light is constant in all reference frames and described how gravity is a curvature in the fabric of space-time.
Electromagnetism:
James Clerk Maxwell: His equations of electromagnetism unified electrical and magnetic theories into a single coherent theory, and predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves, including light.
Michael Faraday: His research on electromagnetism and electromagnetic induction laid the foundation for the development of Maxwell's electromagnetic theory. Quantum mechanics:
Niels Bohr: his model of the atom, with quantized energy levels, and his contributions to the development of quantum mechanics were fundamental in the understanding of atomic structure and the behavior of subatomic particles.
Werner Heisenberg: formulated the uncertainty principle, which sets fundamental limits on what we can simultaneously know about the position and momentum of a particle; a key figure in the development of quantum mechanics.
Thermodynamics and statistical physics:
Ludwig Boltzmann: contributed significantly to the development of statistical mechanics and explained the macroscopic properties of physical systems in terms of the microscopic properties of their components.
Josiah Willard Gibbs: Developed statistical thermodynamics and formulated the fundamental laws of thermodynamics into a coherent mathematical framework.
Quantum Mechanics: Unlike classical mechanics, quantum mechanics focuses on the behavior of subatomic particles, such as electrons and photons. Introduces concepts such as wave-particle duality, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, and quantum superposition.
Thermodynamics: studies how energy is transferred between systems and affects matter. It includes concepts such as temperature, heat, entropy and the laws of thermodynamics, which establish the fundamental limits for energy conversion processes.
Electromagnetism: deals with the interactions between electric charges and magnetic fields. It includes concepts such as Coulomb's law, Gauss's law, Ampere's law, and Maxwell's equations, which describe how electric and magnetic fields relate and propagate.
Relativity: Proposed by Albert Einstein, it describes how gravity arises from the curvature of space-time caused by matter and energy. Special relativity, on the other hand, deals with objects that move at speeds close to the speed of light and how time and space are affected by it.
Particle physics: studies subatomic atoms and their fundamental interactions. It includes concepts such as quarks, leptons, bosons and fundamental forces such as electromagnetics, the strong nuclear force and the weak nuclear force.
Cosmology: is the study of the origin, evolution and structure of the universe as a whole. It includes theories about the Big Bang, the expansion of the universe, the formation and evolution of galaxies, and the nature of dark matter and energy.
Fundamental concepts:
Space and Time: Studies how space and time interact with matter and energy.
Matter and energy: Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass; Energy is the ability to do work.
Systems of units: International System of Units (SI) is used to measure physical quantities such as length, mass, time, etc.
Mechanics:
Kinematics: studies the movement of objects without considering the causes that produce it.
Dynamics: Analyzes the causes of motion, such as force and mass, and how they affect the motion of an object.
Static: focuses on bodies in balance, that is, they are not in motion.
Thermodynamics:
Laws of thermodynamics: establish fundamental principles about the behavior of heat and energy in physical systems.
Temperature and heat: Temperature measures the average kinetic energy of particles in a system, while heat is the transfer of thermal energy between two systems due to a temperature difference.
Electricity and magnetism:
Electric charge: The fundamental property of matter that creates electrical fields and forces.
Electric current: The orderly flow of electrical charges through a conductor.
Magnetic field: focus of influence around a magnet or an electric current where a magnetic force is exerted on other moving charges.
Optics:
Geometric optics: studies the propagation of light in terms of rays traveling in straight lines.
Physical optics: focuses on the physical aspects of light, such as interference and diffraction.
Waves:
Mechanical waves: propagate through a material medium, such as waves on a string or sound waves.
Electromagnetic waves: They do not require a material medium and can propagate through a vacuum, like light and radio waves.
Relativity and Quantum Physics:
Special relativity: description of how space and time are interrelated and how they are affected by speed
Quantum physics: studies phenomena at very small scales such as atoms and subatomic particles.
Atoms are the basic units of matter, constituents of everything that surrounds us. They are composed of a central nucleus containing subatomic particles called protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons that orbit the nucleus in regions called "shells" or "energy levels."
Subatomic particles are those that make up atoms and are on a smaller scale than them. The main subatomic particles are:
Protons: have a positive electrical charge and are found in the nucleus of the atom. The number of protons determines the type of atom and identifies it as a specific chemical element.
Neutrons: are neutral particles, without an electrical charge, which are also found in the nucleus along with protons. They contribute to the stability of the atomic nucleus and affect its mass, but do not influence the chemical properties of the atom.
Electrons: are particles with a negative electrical charge that orbit around the nucleus in different shells or energy levels. They are responsible for the chemical properties of an atom and the way it interacts with others to form chemical bonds and compounds.
In addition to these, there are other subatomic particles, such as neutrinos, quarks and bosons, which play important roles in particle physics and our understanding of the universe at fundamental levels.
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle and Quantum Superposition: States that it is impossible to simultaneously precisely know certain pairs of physical variables, such as the position and momentum (or velocity) of a particle. In other words, the more you know about a particle's position, the less you can know about its momentum, and vice versa. This principle is fundamental to quantum mechanics and reflects an inherent limitation in the ability to measure certain properties of subatomic particles.
On the other hand, quantum superposition is a concept that arises from mechanics and refers to the fact that the system can exist in multiple states simultaneously until a measurement is made. It means that before measuring the state of a quantum system, it can be in a combination of different possible moments, which is known as a superposition of states. Quantum superposition is essential to understanding phenomena such as quantum interference and is fundamental to quantum computing.
Fundamental laws and equations in the study of electromagnetism: Together, these laws and equations are fundamental in the understanding and description of electromagnetism in classical physics.
Coulomb's law: F=k.|q1.q2|r2F=r2k.|q1.q2|, where F is the electric force between two charges, k is Coulomb's constant, q1 and q2 are the magnitudes of the charges and r is the distance between the charges.
Snell's law: n1.sin(θ1) =n2.sin(θ2 n1.sin(θ1) =n2.sin(θ2), which describes the refraction of light when it passes from one medium to another, where n is the refractive index of the medium and θ is the angle of incidence or refraction.
Bernoulli equation: P+12pv2+pgh=constantP+21pv2+pgh=constant, which describes the relationship between static pressure, dynamic pressure and potential energy per unit volume in an incompressible and viscous fluid flow.
Stefan-Boltzmann law: P=σ.A.T4P=σ.A.T4, where P is the power radiated by a black object, A is the area of the radiating surface, T is the absolute temperature of the object and σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant.
Boyle-Mariotte law: P1.V1=P2.V2, which describes the inverse relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas at constant temperature.
Charles' Law: V1T1=V2T2, where V is the volume and T is the temperature of a gas at constant pressure, describing how the volume of a gas varies with temperature.
Gay-Lussac's law: P1T1=P2T2, which shows the relationship between the pressure and temperature of a gas at constant volume.
Pascal's principle: F1/A1=F2/A2, where F is the applied force and A is the area on which the force acts, describing how the pressure applied to a fluid is transmitted uniformly in all directions.
Archimedes' Principle: Ffloatˊn=ρfluid.Vdisplaced.g, where ρfluid is the density of the fluid, Vdisplaced is the volume of the displaced fluid and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
Law of conservation of energy: Einitial=Efinal, which states that the total energy of an isolated system remains constant over time.
Work and kinetic energy theorem: W=ΔKE, where W is the work done on an object and ΔKE is the change in its kinetic energy, showing how the work done on an object is related to the change in its speed.
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