Chapter 12
AI, THE PERSIANS
Although the great Greek philosophers are highly regarded in the Western tradition, the Persians also made significant contributions to philosophical, scientific, and cultural thought. However, their legacy has sometimes been less prominent due to a combination of historical, cultural, and geopolitical factors. Here are some reasons why Persian thinkers do not often feature as much in classical lists of "great thinkers,"
1. Eurocentric perspective
Much of the history of philosophy studied in the West has been written from a Eurocentric perspective , meaning that it tends to focus on the philosophical contributions of Europe, particularly Greece and Rome. As a consequence, the intellectual contributions of other civilizations such as the Persian, Indian, or Chinese have been marginalized or less well-known in Western educational curricula.
2. Differences in philosophical traditions
Persian philosophy and the intellectual tradition of the ancient Persians were greatly influenced by their religion, Zoroastrianism , and its focus on spiritual, ethical, and theological issues. Although dealing with similar issues to those addressed by the Greeks, Persian intellectual traditions developed in a manner more oriented toward spirituality and religious ethics, rather than the rationalistic and systematic approaches that characterized the Greeks.
This has led to Persian philosophies not always being considered "philosophies" in the technical Western sense, although they actually dealt with profound questions about the nature of being, good and evil, and the purpose of life.
3. Persian Contributions to Thought and Philosophy
Although less prominent in the Western philosophical tradition, the Persians had thinkers and philosophers who made far-reaching contributions, especially in the context of the Islamic world and beyond. Here are some important examples:
a. Zoroaster (Zarathustra)
- Founder of Zoroastrianism , one of the oldest religions in the world, which had a significant influence on the ethical, dualistic and religious thought of Persia.
- Zoroaster taught a dualistic conception of the universe: an eternal struggle between good, represented by Ahura Mazda (the creator god), and evil, embodied in Angra Mainyu (the destructive spirit).
- Zoroastrianism influenced the religious thought of other cultures, including Judeo-Christianity, especially in concepts such as heaven, hell and the Last Judgement.
b. Avicenna (Ibn Sina)
- Although born in what is now Uzbekistan, Avicenna (980-1037) is considered part of the Persian cultural legacy. He was an influential philosopher, physician and scientist , known both in the Islamic world and in the West.
- He wrote more than 450 treatises on a variety of subjects, and his work The Canon of Medicine was a standard text in European universities for centuries.
- His philosophy was a synthesis of Aristotelian and Neoplatonic thought with Islamic ideas. He was very influential in the Middle Ages and is considered one of the most brilliant minds of the time.
c. Al-Farabi (Abu Nasr Al-Farabi)
- Al-Farabi (872-950), although of mixed Turkish and Persian descent, is considered one of the great philosophers of the Islamic world. He was influenced by Plato and Aristotle and is known for his work in logic, ethics and politics.
- Al-Farabi also attempted to reconcile philosophy with Islam, which earned him the title "The Second Teacher" (after Aristotle).
d. Omar Khayyam
- Known primarily as a poet for his famous work Rubaiyat , Omar Khayyam (1048–1131) was also a great mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher . Although his poetry is best known in the West, his contributions in mathematics and the exact sciences were equally significant.
- Khayyam wrote about skepticism, doubt, and the nature of fate, making him a leading figure in Persian philosophy.
and. Rumi (Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Rumi)
- Rumi (1207-1273) was a Persian mystic poet and founder of the Sufi order of Whirling Dervishes. Although not a philosopher in the technical sense of the word, his work addresses profound philosophical questions relating to divine love, transcendence, and the spiritual purpose of life.
- His poetry and spiritual teachings have resonated throughout the centuries and have had a great influence on the Islamic mystical tradition and beyond.
4. The influence of the Islamic conquest
Following the Islamic conquest of Persia in the 7th century, Persian thinkers began to contribute to the development of Islamic philosophy . This context changed the way Persian thought developed, merging with Arabic and Hellenistic traditions.
- Al-Ghazali and Nasir al-Din al-Tusi are two other prominent Persian philosophers who also worked within this Islamic framework, influencing theology, ethics, and science.
5. Dissemination of your ideas
While Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle became the foundation of Western thought, ideas from the Persian and Islamic world spread further east and into Islamic regions. During the Middle Ages, philosophers such as Avicenna and Al-Farabi
6. Contemporary recognition
Today, there is a renewed interest in recognizing the contributions of the Persian world and other non-Western civilizations to philosophy and science. In cross-cultural and academic studies, the contributions of Persian thinkers are receiving more attention and are valued for their global impact.
Persian thinkers do not feature as much in traditional lists of great philosophers due to a combination of historical perspective, cultural differences, and the way philosophy developed in the West. However, they made profound and lasting contributions to human thought, especially in areas such as ethics, metaphysics, science, and spirituality.
Relations between the PERSIANS and the ROMANS
The clashes between the Persians and the Romans were the result of a long struggle for control of strategic territories and for hegemony in the ancient world. These wars spanned several centuries, from the initial clashes between the Roman Empire and the Parthian Empire (a Persian dynasty) to the wars between Rome and the Sassanian Empire (another Persian dynasty that succeeded the Parthians). The main reasons for these conflicts include:
Territorial control : The disputed regions, especially Mesopotamia, Armenia and Syria, were crucial for their resources and strategic location. Mesopotamia, for example, was rich in agriculture and a vital transit zone for trade between the east and west.
Trade Routes : The Romans and Persians wanted to control the trade routes that connected Europe to Asia, particularly the Silk Road. Trade in valuable goods, such as spices, silk, and other exotic products, passed through these routes, giving them great economic value.
Prestige and power : both Rome and Persia were superpowers of the time and the struggle for political and military supremacy was a matter of prestige. Victory in these wars reinforced the legitimacy of the emperors among their population and internal rivals.
Cultural and religious differences : Although this factor was more important in the later stages of the conflicts, the differences between Roman culture, with its Greco-Roman pantheon and later Christianity, and Persian culture, influenced by Zoroastrianism, also played a role in the rivalry. The wars between Rome and the Sassanians, for example, included elements of religious rivalry.
Armenia : This kingdom was a frequent point of conflict, as it was on the border between both empires. Rome and Persia competed for influence over Armenia due to its strategic importance.
These reasons made conflicts between Persians and Romans recurring, lasting for centuries until the fall of both empires to new emerging powers, such as the Muslim Arabs in the 7th century.
Relations between the Persians and the Romans were complex and conflictual for several centuries, characterized mainly by intermittent wars and, occasionally, periods of peace and diplomacy . The two great powers, which dominated the Middle East and the Mediterranean, repeatedly clashed for control of strategic regions, particularly in the area of Mesopotamia, the Caucasus and Armenia. Below I describe the main phases of their relationship:
Parthian and Roman Wars (1st century BC - 3rd century AD)
During the Parthian period , who ruled Persia before the rise of the Sassanians, relations with Rome were predominantly warlike:
Roman Republic vs Parthian Empire : In 53 BC, the Romans, under Crassus, attempted to invade Parthia (Persia), but were defeated at the Battle of Carrhae . This defeat was a major blow to Rome and set a pattern of conflict.
Control of Armenia : Armenia was a key battleground between Rome and Parthia, with both empires fighting to install puppet kings. Although there were some agreements, such as the one made by Emperor Nero with the Parthian king Tiridates in 66 AD, tensions in this region persisted for centuries.
Wars of Trajan and Septimius Severus : The Roman Emperor Trajan carried out an invasion of Mesopotamia in 115 AD, managing to conquer some key cities, but the Romans were unable to maintain their control. Years later, the Emperor Septimius Severus also invaded Parthian territory, achieving some victories.
Relations during the Sassanian Empire (224-651 AD)
When the Sassanids took control of Persia in the 3rd century AD, the wars with Rome intensified and reached new dimensions:
Shapur I and the Capture of Valerian : One of the most famous events of this period was the capture of the Roman Emperor Valerian by the Sassanian king Shapur I in 260 AD. Shapur defeated the Roman legions at the Battle of Edessa and humiliated Valerian, using him as a slave. This was one of the worst defeats for Rome against Persia.
Border Wars : The Sassanid and Roman Wars continued intermittently, with both empires fighting for control of Mesopotamia , Syria , and Armenia
Balance of power politics : Although there were periods of relative peace, conflict was always around the corner. Rome and Persia saw each other as rivals in the region and used diplomacy and local alliances (especially with the kingdoms of Armenia and Arabia) to maintain a balance of power.
Periods of peace and diplomatic agreements
Despite the constant clashes, there were also times when Rome and Persia managed to establish treaties and maintain peace:
Agreements between Diocletian and Narses : In 298, after a war in which Rome emerged victorious, the Roman Emperor Diocletian and the Sassanian King Narses signed a treaty that fixed the borders in favor of Rome. This maintained peace for several years.
Treaty of 363 : After the death of the Roman Emperor Julian the Apostate in his campaign against Persia, the Emperor Jovian signed a peace treaty in 363, ceding several eastern provinces to the Sassanians to ensure the safe withdrawal of his army.
Relations during the Byzantine period
After the division of the Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire (the eastern part of the Roman Empire) inherited tensions and relations with Persia:
Khosrow I and Justinian I : In the 6th century, the Byzantine emperors, especially Justinian I , attempted to maintain peaceful relations with the Sassanian king Khosrow I , through treaties such as the "Treaty of Eternal Peace" in 532. However, the peace was short-lived, and wars soon resumed, especially affecting the Caucasus region and the Near East .
Heraclius and Khosrow II : One of the most dramatic episodes occurred in the 7th century, when Khosrow II invaded Byzantine territory and went on to capture Jerusalem in 614 and Egypt in 619. However, the Byzantine emperor Heraclius conducted a series of successful campaigns culminating in the decisive Battle of Nineveh in 627, where he defeated the Persians and forced their retreat.
The fall of the Sassanian Empire and the rise of Islam
The conflict between Byzantium and Persia exhausted both empires, leaving them vulnerable to the spread of Islam. Shortly after the exhaustive wars between Heraclius and Khosrow II, Islamic Arab armies defeated both the Byzantines and the Persians. In 651, the Sassanian Empire collapsed following the Muslim conquest of Persia, ending centuries of rivalry between Rome and Persia.
Cultural and diplomatic impact
Despite conflicts, there were cultural exchanges and mutual influences. Rome adopted certain Persian practices, such as the use of heavy cavalry, and diplomatic interactions were often intense, with embassies exchanged and treaties negotiated. Persian culture, especially in its Sassanian stage, had an impact on the arts, architecture, and administration in both the Roman and Byzantine worlds.
Relations between the Persians and Romans were primarily defined by territorial and military rivalry , but there were also cultural and diplomatic exchanges. Over the course of several centuries, Rome and Persia fought for supremacy in key regions of the ancient world, but neither was able to achieve a definitive victory. This interaction, both violent and diplomatic, left a lasting mark on the history of both civilizations.
AI Opinion: The article "AI, THE PERSIANS" by José Saul Velásquez Restrepo presents a comprehensive analysis of the influence of the Persians on philosophy, science and geopolitical relations, although less known in the West, it has left a deep impact. I find it a well-structured text with an interesting approach in highlighting the historical reasons why Persian contributions have been relegated to the background in the history of philosophy and science compared to the Greek ones.
One of the most notable points is the recognition of the Eurocentric perspective that has influenced how the history of philosophy has been written. This Western-centric view has limited the recognition of other great civilizations such as the Persian, whose cultural and philosophical richness has been less valued. The article gives significant examples such as Zoroaster, Avicenna, Al-Farabi and Rumi, and clarifies how their works influenced both the Islamic world and Europe during the Middle Ages.
The text also puts into context the complex relations between Persians and Romans, clearly describing the reasons behind the conflicts, such as the dispute over strategic territories, trade routes and the desire for hegemony. In addition, the article highlights how these empires exchanged victories and defeats over the centuries, offering a balanced perspective on the clashes.
A valuable aspect is how Joseph Saul highlights the influence of religion and ethics in Persian thought, which is fundamental to understanding his philosophical system and his more spiritual and ethical approach compared to Greek rationalism.
Overall, the article is very informative and balances well historical analysis with philosophical reflection. I think it could be expanded a bit more on the contemporary implications of this Persian heritage in today's world, such as the growing interest in the study of these traditions. This could give it greater relevance and connection to modern debates on interculturality and non-Western philosophy.
